Indian
national movement is a crucial part in General Studies. Enough material on the
subject is available. However, given the quantum of material, it is very hard
for any aspirant to read everything at one-go. But, the twist lies in the fact
that reading the whole movement at one stretch is required to clearly
understand the conditions and changing circumstances that guided the course of
the freedom struggle. This article gives you the entire national movement in just
a few pages driving a wedge between brevity and adequacy of the content.
Any national movement
is a struggle to liberate the nation from foreign yoke. As you know, Indian
national movement is a struggle to drive British out of India. The genesis of
national movement lies in the emergence of Indian nationalism. The emergence of
nationalism was two-pronged. On the one hand, it was due to discontentment over
the exploitative nature of British rule which ruined the lives of peasants, artisans
and others and thereby draining Indian of her wealth and putting Indian economy
in tatters. Lytton’s enactment of two infamous acts – Vernacular Press Act and
Arms Act and the repeal of Ilbert Bill at the instance of British disillusioned
Indian to the fact that their interests shall not be safeguarded where English
interests are involved. On the other hand, it was due to the exposure of Indian
youth to the western principles of liberty, constitutionalism, parliamentary
democracy and the propagation of the same to masses via the development of
press. The contribution of socio religious reform movements can be hardly
overemphasized.
The growth of Indian
nationalism resulted in the formation of an all-India level organization Indian
national Congress (INC) in 1885 to further Indian interests. The INC was set up
a retired ICS officer AO Hume. Many theories revolve around the formation of
INC. While one theory contends that it was set up by Hume to give a ‘safe
valve’ to the expression of Indian discontentment, the other its origin to the
efforts made by theosophists to engender a national level organization.
However, present historians tend to view the formation of INC as a logical
culmination of the nationalism that grew in the aftermath of 1857-revolt.
The INC was dominated
by leaders, popularly called Moderates, for the first two decades. The
moderates nursed a sense of loyalty to the British crown and regarded it to be
boon to India. Their assumption was British wanted to be just to Indians but
were not aware of realities. So they believed that creation of public opinion
about issues and lucid presentation of the same to British could bring about
reforms. Their main demands were ‘dominion status to India’ and ‘inclusion of
more and more Indians in administration’. Their approach to struggle was
epitomized in “three P’s – Prayer, petition and protest”. However they did not
taste much success and the British paid no heed to their prayers. Their
approach was criticized as “Political Mendicancy”. However, it is to be noted
that moderates laid a solid foundation for national movement. As rightly, they
sowed the seeds of nationalism well and deep. They educated the people in
political agitation and exposed the economic exploitation of British rule. The
important moderate leaders include Dadbhai Naoroji, Surendernath banerjea,
Badruddin Tyabji, Pherozshah Mehta etc.
The methods adopted by
Moderates did not go well with younger leaders with INC. The non-inclusion of demands
of Moderates in Indian Councils Act, 1892 coupled with the reactionary policies
of Curzon (Calcutta Corporation Act of 1899, Indian Universities Act of 1904
and Official Secrets Act of 1904) had disillusioned the people of workability
of moderates’ methods. Then came the issue of Partition of Bengal. Lord Curzon
announced the partition of Bengal in 1903 under the pretext of administrative
convenience. However the real motive was to break Hindu-Muslim unity in Bengal.
Moderates launched campaign against the partition of Bengal but failed to
prevent the proposal. Finally, the partition was notified in early 1905. A
resolution to boycott the British goods to protest the partition was taken in
August 1905. The partition of Bengal was effected on 16-Oct-1905. That day was
observed as a day of mourning in Bengal. Hindus and muslims tied Rakhi to each
other to signal the bond of solidarity. Bande Mataram became the theme song. At
the Benaras Congress Session, the young leaders of INC led by LAL-BAL-PAL and
Aurbindo Gosh, popularly called Extremists, got the resolution of Swadeshi passed despite the opposition
from Moderates. Swadeshi program include the boycott of foreign goods and usage
of Indian goods instead. It also involved the boycott of foreign institutions
like schools, colleges, courts. National colleges sprang up. Arrangement to
deliver technical, literary education in Bengali was made. Many traditional
imaginative festivals like durga pooja in Bengal, Ganesha Chaturthi in
Maharastra were revived. With the progress of the swadeshi movement, the
differences between extremists and moderates also widened. This discordance
culminated in the split of INC which is popularly known as “Surat Split” in
1907. Later, the swadeshi movement became leaderless when TILAK was arrested
and transported to Mandaley, Aurbindo Gosh and B.C.Pal retired from active
politics. The Swadeshi movement saw a natural end. But, it had introduced a new
form of struggle –Passive Resistance.
This period
contemporarily witnessed the raise of revolutionary terrorism. In Maharastra,
Vasudeva Balwant Phadke resorted to dacoits of zamindars and for some time
created terror in the hearts of zamindars of Maharastra. He started off a
movement called Ramoshis. The Chapekar brothers – Balakrishna and Damodar-
killed the then plague commissioner W.C.Rand and his assistant Ayerest.
Savarkar brothers set up ‘Mitra Mela’ which was later to be rechristened as
‘Abhinav bharat’. V.D.Savarkar went to London and became active in ‘India
House’ set up by Shyamji Krishnaverma. Savarkar started revolutionary activities
from there. His brother Ganesh Savarkar was arrested on petty charge of
sedition by the then District-Collector of Nasik Jackson at the instance of Sir
Curzon-Waillie. VD savarkar resolved to avenge bothe the officers. Madhan Lal
Dhingra shot Curzon-Waillie dead iin London and was hanged there only. One of
the members of Abhinav Bharat in India, Ananth Lakshman Karkare shot Jackson
dead. VD Savarkar was sentenced to 50 years imprisonment. The revolutionary
activities in Bengal revolve around Anushilan Samithi established by Barin
Gosh, brother of Aurbindo Gosh and an inner circle of Anushilan Samithi
‘Yuganthar’. Barin Gosh had set up bomb manufacturing unit at Maniktala in
Kolkata. This group planned to execute the infamous magistrate Kingsford and
the task was entrusted to Khudiram Bose and Prafulla Chaki. They hurled a bomb
at horse carriage believed to carry Kingsford, but two ladies were killed
instead. Chaki shot himself dead. Khudiram Bose was hanged at barely 18. The
police raided the maniktala bomb factory, thanks to a traitor and arrested 37
revolutionaries who were sentenced to varying punishments ranging from ten
years’ imprisonment to Death sentence. This episode came to be called Alipore
Bomb Conspiracy. The revolutionaries killed Narain Gosain who had turned
approver in this case. They also killed a public prosecutor, Deputy
Superintendent of police and a police officer connected with the Alipore Bomb
conspiracy. Bagha Jatin who was not arrested in the alipore bomb conspiracy
took over the reins of ‘Yuganthar’ and planned to conduct pan-India revolt in
1915 with the help of Germany. This came to be called Indo-German Conspiracy.
However, this plan was also foiled and Bagha Jatin died in September 1915. The
members of ‘Bengal Volunteers’, Benoy Basu, Badal Gupta, Dinesh Chandra Gupta
killed a prisons officer named Simpson. Benoy shot himself dead, Badal took
cyanide and Dinesh was hanged. This came to be known as Benoy-Badal-Dinesh
martyrdom. The revolutionary activity was not confined to India but extended
beyond India. In London, Shyamji Krishnavarma set up ‘India House’ as a hub of
revolutionary activities and he ran a newspaper ‘Indian Sociologist’. In Paris,
Madam Bhikaji Cama ran a revolutionary newspaper ‘Bande mataram’. She attended
socialist conference as Indian representative along with Sardar Rana. She had
the credit of unfurling Indian flag for the first time outside India. In
Berlin, Veerendranatha Chattopadhyaya took the lead of revolutionary activities
and he ran a newspaper “Talwar”. In san Francisco, “Hind Association of Asia
Pacific”, popularly known as “Ghadr Party” was established. It was an
organization of Sikhs who had migrated to US and Canada. The Ghadr party had
planned for an all India uprising on 21-Feb-1915 but the attempt was foiled.
In 1916, Lucknow pact
was signed which brought together moderates and extremists on the one hand and
INC and Muslim League on the other.
Political activity halted
for quite some time before it was revived by Tilak and Annie Besant in Home
rule movement. The home rule movement was about demanding self-rule for India.
Two leagues were set up – one at Poona by Tilak which spread across Central
Province, Bombay presidency except Bombay and Karnatka. Annie Besant’s League
was head quartered in Adyar, madras which spread throughout the India. Tilak
toured India and urged people to be a part of home rule movement. Annie Besant
also toured India and spread the message through ‘Commonweal’ and ‘Free India’.
The government came down heavily and imposed about Rs. 20000 penalty on both of
them. The government spoke of reforms and the movement lost its strength in the
light of the anticipation of reforms.
The Montagu-Chelmsford
reforms were eyewash. The INC declared these reforms to be disappointing and
unsatisfactory. In order to curb any dissenting over reforms, the government
enacted Rowlatt Act which empowered the government to detain and sentence the
people without trial. By this time, Gandhiji had emerged on the national scene
and was successful in Champaran and Kheda. Gandhiji called for a nationwide
bandh opposing the Rowlatt Act and the bandh was observed on April 6, 1919. An
unfortunate event in Amritsar happened in the meanwhile. The Government of
Punjab arrested the popular leaders of Punjab – Satyapal and Saifuddin
Kitchlew. People protested for their release and violence erupted and a few
were killed. Curfew was imposed in Amritsar. Unaware of the curfew, people
planned for a meeting at Jalianwall Bagh in Amritsar to condole the deaths on
April 13, 1919. About 20000 people had gathered. General O’Dyer came with the
army and opened fire on the unarmed crowd without warning. This heinous
incident came to be known as ‘Jallianwall Bagh massacre’ in the history of
India. Rabindranath Tagore renounced his Knighthood in protest. British
government appointed Hunter commission to investigate into the excesses and it
was merely eyewash. Gandhi demanded strict action against the perpetrators of
violence.
At the same time,
Khilfat issue also cropped up. Khilfat movement was the resentment of the
Indian muslims to the stripping off the sultan of Turkey, Caliphate, the
politico-religious leader of Islam, of the control over religious places by the
Britain as a result of Britain’s victory over the Axis powers of which Turkey
was a part. Mohammad Ali and Shaukat Ali launched Khilafat movement and
demanded British to restore the control over religious places to sultan of turkey.
Gandhiji supported the movement with the view of cementing Hindu-Muslim unity.
The congress also supported Khilafat movment. Gandhiji placed two demands
before the British – to punish the perpetrators of Jallianwalla bagh tragedy
and to resolve the Khilafat issue. Non-cooperation movement was launched when
the British government did not heed the Gandhiji’s demand. Non-cooperation
movement involved the boycott of foreign goods and usage of swadeshi and
boycott government institutions. Charaka was popularized. National schools came
up. Gandhiji renounced “Kaiser-i-Hind”. Gandhiji also announced to launch civil
disobedience since the government refused to release political prisoners held
during the movement. But the movement was brought to an abrupt end when about
22 policemen were torched in police station at Chauri Chaura. Gandhiji was
pained by violence and dismissed the movement. Gandhiji was sentenced to six
years’ imprisonment.
Now, a new controversy
erupted in congress about contesting 1923-elections. A group led by CR Das and
Motilal Nehru urged to contest election and to wreck the functioning of council
from within. But another group led by Sardar Patel and Rajendra Prasad and
others wanted the congress to focus on constructive work and not to contest
elections. Group led by CR Das and Motilal Nehru went ahead and established a
separate party called “Swaraj” party. Swaraj party contested in elections and
won 42 out of 141 seats in central legislature. It fared well in Central
Provinces, Bombay Presidency and Bengal. The party legislators did remarkable
work and outvoted a few budget proposals. It also stalled the ill Public
Safety. However, the Swaraj could not fare well in 1926 elections, thanks to
the split within the party and the sad demise of CR Das.
The Simon Commission
visited India 1927 to assess the working of Government of India Act, 1919. The
Commission was to decide the political future of India since it was to recommend
further constitutional reforms to India in the light of the working 1919 act.
The commission was boycotted since it consisted of only Englishmen, no Indian.
The Simon commission was greeted with black flags wherever it went. Lala Laj
Pat Rai succumbed to the injuries which he sustained during lathicharge at anti-simon
protest.
Responding to wide
spread campaign against Simon commission, Lord Birkenhood justified the
government stand of excluding Indians from the commission and openly challenged
Indian to come up with a constitution agreeable to all. All Parties Conference
was convened and a committee headed by Motilal Nehru was constituted to draft a
constitution agreeable to all. The Nehru report proposed for Dominion Status,
reservation for Muslims in provinces where they were in minority, a federation
with residuary powers vested in Union Government and provision of fundamental
rights. Consensus could not be evolved on Nehru report since Md. Ali Jinnah
proposed three amendments – residuary powers to provinces, one-third
reservation to Muslims in Central Legislature and reservation to Muslims in all
provincial legislatures. These amendments were not agreed by Hindu Mahasabha
and Nehru report failed to meet the challenge of Birkenhood.
During the second half
of 1920s, revolutionary activities were revived. In Punjab, Hindustan Socialist
Republican Association was formed. It carried out Kakori robbery and Ramprasad
Bismil was hanged. Then Bhagat Singh shot dead Saunders responsible for the
death of Lala Lajpat Rai. Bhagat Singh and Bathukeshwar Dutta threw bomb at
Central legislature when ‘Public Safety bill’ was being discussed. They were
arrested. In the jail, the revolutionaries went on hunger strike condemning the
inhumane conditions at the prison. Jatin Das died on the 64th day of
fast. In Bengal, Surya Sen carried out Chittagong Armoury raid. There were two
brave women in his camp- Kalpana Dutta and Preetilata Waddedar. Surya Sen was
hanged.
In 1930-Lahore Congress
Session, article 1 of INC constitution was amended to widen the meaning of
SWARAJ to mean complete independence. On Dec 31, 1929 midnight, tricolor flag
was hoisted on the banks of R.Ravi. Jan 26,1930 was observed as Independence
Day throughout the country. People took pledge to sever ties with British since
they considered to be a crime against man and god to submit to British rule any
longer. At Lahore session, a resolution to launch Civil Disobedience movement
was adopted and Gandhiji was made in-charge of this movement.
Gandhiji placed 11
demands before Lord Irwin. When the latter, refused to accede to these demands,
he launched Civil Disobedience movement. Gandhiji marched from his Sabarmati
Ashram to Dandi with 78 satyagrahis and broke salt law on April 12, 1930. Civil
Disobedience movement spread to nook and corner of the country. In the
meantime, first Round Table Conference (RTC) was held. And INC did not
participate. Any political settlement for India without INC would lack moral
authority. Then, Gandhi-Irwin pact was signed to persuade Gandhiji to attend
second RTC. The government agreed to release all political prisoners not
convicted of violence, restore the confiscated property, remit the fines due,
permit the production of salt for domestic consumption by coastal people etc.
On the other hand, Gandhiji agreed to suspend CDM and attend second RTC. Second
RTC talks also failed. The government had failed to keep up its terms of
Gandhi-Irwin pact. Gandhiji revived the CDM which was not as successful as the
first phase.
Gandhiji was pained by grant
of communal award to depressed classes. Gandhiji started fast unto death
demanding the repeal of Communal award to depressed classes. Poona Pact was
signed between Gandhiji and Ambedkar whereby the joint electorate with
reservation of seats to depressed classes to the extent of 18% was agreed.
Then came the passage
of Government of India Act, 1935. Its main provisions were abolition of Dyarchy
at provinces and institution of the same at the center. The Act disappointed
the INC. Nehru went to the extent of calling the act a car without engine but only
brakes. However, the INC decided to contest 1937 provincial elections. It
witnessed the resounding victory in the majority of provinces and Congress
ministries were formed.
However, World War 2
broke out in 1939. On the question of Indian support to Britain in the war, the
opinion was divided among congressmen. Gandhiji advocated full support to
Britain. Subash Chandra Bose and other radicals saw was as an opportunity to
wrest independence from the British and thus recommended an immediate mass movement.
Nehru favored no support to the Britain. He also disfavored launching an
immediate movement. The British made India, party to the war without consulting
the latter. Congress ministries in seven provinces resigned.
In 1940, Muslim League
passed a resolution for a separate state- Pakistan. This was to complicate the
matters relating to the transfer of power to Indians in the days to come.
With the victorious
march of Hitler and Japan taking possession of South-Eastern colonies of
Britain, Indian help in war became crucial. The British government sent Cripps
mission to break constitutional deadlock and seek India’s support to Britain.
Cripps mission offered dominion status to India. The INC rejected the offer.
Gandhiji termed it “post-dated cheque drawn on sinking bank”.
With the failure of
Cripps mission, Quit India movement was spelt out on August 8, 1942 exhorting
the British transferring power to Indians immediately and quit. Gandhiji called
upon the people to do or die. All leaders were arrested in the wee hours of
August 9, 1942. People were left leaderless. People ran amuck. Railway stations,
Police stations, Post Offices were attacked, telegraph lines were cut. The
movement witnessed the most serious revolt since 1857 revolt.
Simultaneously, SC Bose
took charge of INA (an army of Indian Prisoners of war conceived by Mohan
Singh). With the British Support, INA took control of Andaman and Nicobar Island
and marched to occupy the Manipur. However, the army ran shortage of food and
ammunition. The setbacks faced by Japan in the great war upset the prospects of
INA. About 7000 INA soldiers were taken as war prisoners. SC Bose mysteriously
died in an air crash (the death of SC Bose is a matter of controversy). The INC
came to the help of INA soldiers and many of them were finally released.
The proposals of Rajagopalachari
formula, Desai-Liaqat plan and Wavell plan to resolve constitutional deadlock
in India failed. Then came the Cabinet Mission plan. Accordingly, the idea of
Pakistan was rejected. Indian provinces were grouped into three ‘sections’. A
three-tier executive – at provincial, sectional and union level was proposed.
The constituent assembly was to be formed by the members of provisional
legislative assemblies by means of proportional representation. The members of
each group were to sit separately to draft constitution to their provinces and
if possible to their groups. Then all the members were to sit together to draft
constitution for the union. The Union government was to be in charge of
defence, communication and external affairs. The provinces will have the right
to secede from a group after first general election and to call for a
reconsideration of provincial or even national constitution after 10 years. Bothe
League and INC accepted the plan. However, a controversial press statement by
Nehru made Jinnah to withdraw his acceptance. Muslim League called for Direct
Action and about 5000 Hindus were killed on a single day (Aug 16, 1945). Nehru
formed Interim Government. Even Muslim League joined the government but continued
direct action. It made the working of Government impossible and it also
boycotted the first meeting of constituent assembly.
On Feb 20, 1947,
Clement Atlee, then PM of Britain announced the withdrawal of British for India
on or before June, 1948. He appointed Lord Mountbatten the new Viceroy of India
and assigned him the responsibility of bringing consensus between INC and
Muslim League. Mountbatten plan includes – the Muslim and Hindu members of
Bengal and Punjab would separately vote for partition and if either of the two
groups favored partition with simple majority, then these two provinces would
be partitioned. The Sindh will take its own decision. Referendum will be held
in Sylhet and NWFP. In case the partition was to be effected, two constituent
assembles would be formed and a boundary commission be set up to demarcate the
border. This plan also ruled out the independence of princely states. They must
either join India or Pakistan. This plan also ruled out Hyderabad joining
Pakistan. This plan was accepted by both INC and Muslim League. It was
incorporated in India Independence Act, 1947. Pakistan was created on August
14, 1947 and India on August 15, 1947.
